國際關係理論多集中於討論無政府狀態(anarchy)假設延伸下的國家互動,對國際體系中的層級(hierarchy)現象,並沒有多所注意。尤其新現實 主義的研究典範,忽略國際體系發生層級結構的可能性,更輕視討論層級結構的價值。
層級結構是國家在國際體系內追求發展與生存的過程中,所衍生出的一種權力分配暨權威(authority)規範的建構結果。霸權穩定論(Hegemony Stability Theory)與權力轉移論(Power Transition Theory),從權力分配角度對國際層級作出初步的探索。新自由制度主義則討論霸權運用國際制度取得正當性統治的形式,不過沒有觸及權威對霸權統治的影響。
層級結構不單單是相對國家間掌握權力資源高低所形成的等級,更代表了強權國家對弱勢國家所擁有的權力作用。此種權力的支配作用,會因為彼此關係的制度化,而具備權威的正當性,進而降低了霸權統治從屬國的成本,更舒緩了權力資源分配變化對霸權更迭的作用。國際體系中的層級結構,具有行為者權力資源分配不對稱、國際權威地位差別化、行使國際權利不對等及決定國際規範議程能力失衡等特徵。
層級並不是單純地物質力量分配的結果,而是國際物質權力分配與國際觀念分配互構下的產物。運用國際體系權力分配與權威規範密度作為評比項目,吾人可以得到國際體系的無層級原始狀態、鼎立附庸、大國協調、兩極鬆散、兩雄扈從、制度兩霸、朝貢體系、單極順服與全球帝國等不同的國際層級類型。在不同的層級結構中,霸權統治方式與統治成效均有所不同。
Neorealism and Neoliberial-institutionalism have paid little attention to the international hierarchy because international hierarchy could not take place in an international anarchic structure.
The international hierarchy is a constructed result coming from the interaction of power distribution and normative authority in the process of which states seek survival and development in the international system. The international hierarchy has four characters: the asymmetry of actor’s power resources, the differentionation of international authority rank, the inequality of state’s exercise of international rights, and the imbalance of international agenda-setting capability. Hegemonic state inclines to decrease her ruling cost and widen her authority in the hierarchical structure in order to obtain a durable position of superiority.
There are hierarchical structures in different kinds of international distribution of material power, such as the original structure without hierarchy, the partron-obediance, the concert, the bipolar of loose compliance, the bipolar of institutional compliance, the tribute system, the unipolar compliance, and the world empire. Thus, in each different hierarchical structure, the ruling cost of the hegemonic domination is different.
近 400 年來的歐洲,是主權國家平等的「西發里亞體系」,以權力平衡維繫國際秩序;近 600 年以來的東亞,則是中國為天朝而四方小國臣服的「朝貢體系」,是上下層級的國際秩序。為何會有「朝貢體系」?它為何能運作?從現實主義式的觀點來看,「朝貢體系」只是一個包裝過的權力政治,骨子裡仍是物質上的利害與效益計算,中國霸權之下區域國家抵抗無望,不得不臣服。但是,從建構主義式的觀點來看,之所以會有「朝貢體系」的國際秩序,並不只是因為中國的強大,也是因為區域國家認同中國的..
For nearly four centuries, Europe had the so-called Westphalian System of sovereign states, in which balance of power was the basis of international order. In contrast, for nearly six centuries, East Asia had the so-called “tribute system,” a hierarchical order where China was the supreme leader. Why? From a realist perspective, the tribute system was just a wrapper over power politics based on material calculations of interest and benefit: East Asian countries had no choice but submission to China’s hegemon..
探究國際規範擴散,是解析國際社會規範塑造國家偏好、利益與行為,以及探索國際社會共享知識文化構成的重要課題。現有國際規範擴散的研究成果,多以人權作為研究案例,偏重國際組織、非政府組織與知識社群的作用,但是亦遭遇線性思考的批評,難以解釋國家為何不遵從的盲點。 檢視臺灣轉換 IAEA 用過核燃料暨放射性廢物管理安全聯合公約的歷程,可以發現國際組織與非政府組織的作用十分薄弱,而享有專業科學知識的政府組織,僅看重科學技術在核安全事務扮演的有限角色..
International norms diffusion is an important issue by which we explore how the international social norms have shaped national preferences, interests, and behaviors, as well as the constitution of shared knowledge in the international community. Taking largely from human rights case studies, existing findings on international norms diffusion have mainly suffered from linear thinking and difficulties in explaining noncompliance of international norms. Analyzing the transfer of the Joint Convention on the Safety of ..
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